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Last Updated: 2024-04-18
One reason people find it difficult to understand Aristotle's conception of human fulfillment is that, I feel, translators often miss the mark in rendering his key concepts into English. I've spent many years pondering how to let the original Greek sense of Aristotle's thinking shine through, and I often do so by avoiding Latinate words and instead rendering Greek terms using plain English words that have Anglo-Saxon roots. Although many of my renderings are non-standard, they are intended to give the reader a fresh perspective on Aristotle's ideas; more traditional renderings are mentioned for purposes of comparison.
Activity translates energeia (ἐνέργεια). This is perhaps the most important concept in Aristotle's account of human Fulfillment. Its core meaning is being engaged in working at a Task, which is why translator Joe Sachs rendered it as "being-at-work". Aristotle repeatedly points out that it's not good enough to be Thriving in your Character and Thinking, if that means merely having a Trait but not using and applying it in your Doings and Feelings (after all, even someone who is asleep can have a trait). In short, Life simply is activity. [Traditionally rendered as Actuality.]
Aliveness translates psuchē (ψυχή). Aliveness is what animates a living being, what makes it a living thing, what gives form to the Activities that make up its Life. The specifics of an organism's Aliveness are Inherent in its Nature and its characteristic Way of Life. [Traditionally rendered as Soul.]
Awareness translates theōria (θεωρία). At root, the Activity that mostly starkly separates humans and other animals from plants and inanimate objects is their keen awareness of the world around them. For the other animals, this takes the form of the Capacity for perceptual awareness (aisthesis), including some amount of memory, imagination, and foresight. To this humans add Thinking and a full range of symbolic faculties, such as speech, recollection, planning, and culture — all of which are built upon the foundation of conceptual awareness (theoria). Most intensively, human awareness arises when we actively use and apply our Understanding of ourselves and the world around us, in the Activities of ethical Doing and intellectual Inquiry. [Traditionally rendered as Contemplation.]
Bad translates kakos (κακός). Similar to the Good, what's Bad is what is actually (not apparently) detrimental, harmful, or damaging to a living organism, which in practice means anything that impedes it from successfully pursuing its Way of Life. [Traditionally rendered as Evil.]
Balance-Point translates meson (μέσον). All Thrivings of Character and Thinking avoid excesses in our Doings and Feelings, whether falling short or going beyond what is Fitting or Beautifully Right. When we hit the Target, we've reached a Balance-Point that is worth savoring and beholding. [Traditionally rendered as the Mean.]
Beautifully Right translates kalos (καλός). The Greek word kalos straddles the line between ethics and aesthetics: it can mean beautiful, fine, right, noble, and so on. Rendering it as "beautifully right" does justice to both of these aspects. All of the Thrivings of Character are done for the benefit (the Good) of the individual and with the aim of doing what is Beautifully Right. [Traditionally rendered as Noble.]
Capacity translates dunamis (δύναμις). All living things have bodily parts that afford the ability to engage in certain Activities, such as seeing, hearing, walking, flying, swimming, grazing, hunting, finding shelter, building nests, remembering things, and using tools. In humans, the range of Capacities widens considerably to include Thinking, language, planning, mastering Crafts, and so on — all of which provide a foundation for individual and societal development, interpersonal relationships, personal Traits, and human Fulfillment. [Traditionally rendered as Potentiality.]
Character translates ēthos (ἦθος). A person's Character consists of the stable set of qualities of Doing and Feeling that informs their Commitments and establishes the aim of their Deliberations.
Commitment translates prohairesis (προαίρεσις). A Commitment is a reliable preference for one pattern of Doing over another. Such a Commitment is much more powerful and thoroughgoing than a decision to take a particular action in a particular situation, because it shapes the form of all of your decisions and actions. This is why a Thriving of Character is a Trait. [Traditionally rendered as Decision.]
Complete translates teleia (τελεία). A living organism is Complete when it has fully developed and matured in accordance with its Nature and Capacities. For humans, these processes can include ever-deepening improvement in Character and Understanding and thus can continue throughout a person's lifespan. [Traditionally rendered as Perfect.]
Completion translates telos (τέλος). Every living organism experiences Completions of its Capacities through the Activities that it pursues in accordance with its Nature and Inherent Task. [Traditionally rendered as End or Purpose.]
Correct translates orthos (ὀρθός). Correct Doing and Feeling finds the active Truth in particular situations and takes a straight path to the Target of a person's Commitments. The term is most common in the Greek phrase orthos logos: the Correct Thinking that underlies Correct Doing and Feeling in a given domain of life. [Traditionally rendered as Right.]
Corruption translates mochthēria (μοχθηρία). Corruption is the opposite of Thriving. The thoroughly corrupted person has no Understanding of human Fulfillment and the Beautifully Right Way of Life, and therefore consistently engages in Bad or Repulsively Wrong Doings and Feelings. [Traditionally rendered as Vice.]
Craft translates technē (τέχνη). Aristotle often compares the person who achieves great Thriving of Character to skilled practitioners such as carpenters, doctors, musicians, and archers. Both Thriving and Craft are Traits that are acquired and perfected in similar ways, but they have one crucial difference: a Craft can be used for Good or for Bad, but a Thriving can be used only for Good. [Traditionally rendered as Art.]
Craftiness translates panourgia (πανουργία). Craftiness is one of the opposites of Wisdom: the crafty person has mastered the Craft-like know-how of practical Doing without having formed a Commitment to what is Good and Beautifully Right. Indeed, for the crafty person even the highest goods are means to unreflective ends like wealth, status, power, and pleasure: Understanding and Insight are not ends in itself as they are for the person of Sagacity, and Beautifully-Right Doing and Feeling are not ends in themselves as they are for the person of Wisdom.
Craving translates epithumia (ἐπιθυμία) when a felt Need is extreme or unnatural.
Culmination translates entelecheia (ἐντελέχεια). Culmination is the state of having fully developed the full range of Capacities consistent with one's Nature, and by extension actually exercising the full range of Activities made possible by having become fully developed. [Traditionally rendered as Actuality.]
Decadence translates akolasia (ἀκολασία). The decadent person has one policy in life: to pursue immediate pleasure and Enjoyment without regard to whether or not the Activities that gives rise to it are Inherently Good, Serious, or Beautifully Right. Indeed, because Decadence is one variety of Corruption, the decadent person reliably indulges in the exact opposite: activities that are bad, unworthy, and repulsively wrong.
Deception translates apatē (ἀπάτη). Deception is one of the opposites of Sagacity because the deceptive person lacks Commitment to Truth. Consistent with the Delphic maxim to "Know Thyself", Deception is not limited to sophistry in teaching or politics but often takes the form of self-deception.
Deliberation translates bouleusis (βουλεύσις). Deliberation is a reflective form of Inquiry that seeks to determine what is Correct and True with regard to Doings and Feelings. The result of Deliberation is a Resolution to act or react in a certain way.
Doing translates praxis (πρᾶξις). Doing is an overall practice or pattern of practical Activity and thus more significant than any particular action one might take. Because Doing is based in Deliberation and Commitment, it is something that animals cannot attain and that even human beings must grow into as they mature. Doing is pursued for its own sake and thus is often contrasted with Making; it is also often contrasted with Feeling because it is something that a person initiates. [Traditionally rendered as Action.]
Enjoyment translates hēdonē (ἡδονή). Every kind of Activity has its own Inherent kind of enjoyment: the joys of eating, say, are quite different from the joys of beholding works of art. This is why the Standard of what's truly enjoyable is the Serious person of Complete Thriving in both Character and Thinking. [Traditionally rendered as Pleasure.]
Feeling translates pathos (πάθος). An Feeling is a mental or emotional state that you undergo because of your interaction with and assessment of things you experience in your environment. Although we tend to think of Feelings as somewhat passive because unlike Doings we do not initiate them, they still count as a form of Activity. Because humans are deeply Social creatures, our most salient Feelings are interpersonal, such as anger, sympathy, and affection. Such Feelings are Inherently bound up with various Thrivings, such as gentleness, compassion, and benevolence. [Traditionally rendered as Passion.]
Fitting translates prepon (πρέπον). What's Fitting is the Doing or Feeling that is admirably appropriate or Beautifully Right in a given situation.
Foolishness translates the interchangeable terms euētheia (εὐήθεια) and aphrosunē (ἀφροσύνη). Foolishness is one of the opposites of Wisdom: the foolish person might have a vague Commitment to what is Good and Beautifully Right, but lacks the Craft-like know-how of practical Doing.
Freedom translates eleutheria (ἐλευθερία). For the ancient Greeks, the highest freedom was not freedom from government but freedom from toil, strife, warfighting, and in general from the yoke of all-encompassing necessity. This state of peace, ease, and Leisure freed them up for Activities that celebrate Life and are Beautifully Right, such as love and friendship, games and festivals, music, dramatic performances, artistic appreciation, intelligent conversation, scientific inquiry, and philosophical speculation.
Fulfillment translates eudaimonia (εὐδαιμονία). The first level of Fulfillment is the activation of all of your core human Capacities by developing the full range of Thrivings of Character and Thinking. The second level is the Activity of applying those Thrivings to the practice of living well, i.e., demonstrating a reliable Commitment to Doings and Feelings that are Beautifully Right. Becoming a fully developed person makes your life Complete, Whole, and uniquely Valuable. [Traditionally rendered as Happiness.]
Good translates agathos (ἀγαθός). Whereas most religions and modern ethical theories assert that the Good must conform to some pre-established rule, for Aristotle the Good is what benefits a living organism or person: not what merely seems to be beneficial, but what truly is beneficial in accordance with a being's Nature, Identity, Task, Capacities, and Completions. Thus Fulfillment or living well is primarily objective, not subjective.
Humaneness translates epieikeia (ἐπιείκεια). The Greek term epieikeia is used in several senses, but the primary sense refers to a special aspect of Justice that applies and adapts general principles to the particulars of a given situation; it is thus a kind of proto-Wisdom. [Traditionally rendered as Decency.]
Identity translates to ti ēn einai (τὸ τί ἦν εἶναι). Literally, this phrase means "what it is to be a thing". The Romans translated it as "essentia", which was modernized as "essence", thus leading to all sorts of confusion about independently existing essences. Aristotle's idea is much more straightforward, and is most reasonably Englished as "identity". [Traditionally rendered as Essence.]
Ignorance translates agnoia (ἄγνοια). Ignorance is one of the opposites of Sagacity because the Ignorant person lacks Understanding of the human Good.
Impasse translates aporia (ἀπορία). You face an Impasse in when you are blocked from attaining Truth or Fulfillment. This kind of predicament can spur you to engage in intellectual Inquiry or practical Deliberation so that you can clear away the confusion and move toward the Target of Thinking or Doing. [Traditionally rendered as Puzzle.]
Indulgence translates thumos (θυμός) when a Want is extreme or unnatural.
Inherent translates oikeios (οἰκεῖος). The Greek word oikeios derives from their word for home, and thus connotes that which is close to home, native as opposed to foreign, familiar as opposed to strange, inner as opposed to outer, and that which is innately bound up with the nature of a thing. A good example is the intimate tie between an Activity and the Enjoyment that makes it Completes. [Traditionally rendered as Proper.]
Inquiry translates zētēsis (ζήτησις). Inquiry is the Activity of seeking Truth, whether in a purely intellectual pursuit or in the form of action-oriented Deliberation.
Insight translates nous (νοῦς). Whereas Understanding goes deep to elucidate the factors responsible for the Identity common to all entities that share a Nature, Insight is the Trait of seeing that underlying Identity in the particular entities and situations you encounter in intellectual Inquiry and practical Doing. Just as the Inherent Activity of Understanding is explaining why something is the way it is, so the Inherent Activity of Insight is calling in the particulars as witnesses to the Nature of the phenomenon under consideration. [Traditionally rendered as Mind or Intuition.]
Justice translates dikaiosunē (δικαιοσύνη). Justice is a capstone Thriving of Character, since consists in the Complete Practice of Complete Thriving in relation to other people.
Knowledge translates gnōsis (γνῶσις). There are several forms of Knowledge, including perception and Insight. Understanding imparts greater generality to such Knowledge by explaining why the things you know are the way they are. Of all the forms of knowledge, the most difficult to attain is self-knowledge, because human beings are their own greatest enigma; yet knowing yourself is the only reliable path to Fulfillment.
Leisure translates scholē (σχολή). We moderns think of leisure as the relatively brief episodes between longer stretches of work, or as the golden years of fun and relaxation after retirement from a career; for us work is fundamental and leisure is the absence of work. By contrast, for the ancient Greeks (or at least members of the aristocracy) scholē was fundamental and work was ascholia: the absence of leisure. Scholē is the Target of people who live in Freedom and is to be spent not in frivolous amusements but in Serious pursuits like artistic appreciation, intellectual inquiry, and philosophical speculation.
Life translates zōē (ζωή). Ancient Greek had two words for life: zōē (whence zoology) and bios (whence biology). The former signifies the life Activities of any living thing, whereas the latter signifies the Way of Life of an organism, especially of animals and humans.
Love translates philia (φιλία). The Greek word philia covers a wide range of close personal relationships, including the love and affection of parents, children, siblings, spouses, friends, even fellow citizens. The highest form of philia is rooted in the good Character of those involved in the relationship and provides a fertile field for applying all the Thrivings of Character and Thinking through the many Activities of a shared life. [Traditionally rendered as Friendship.]
Making translates poiēsis (ποίησις). Making is the kind of Activity associated with a Craft. It is often contrasted with Doing, since the Completion of a Craft lies outside itself in the thing or state that is produced, whereas the Completion of a Doing is Inherent in itself and it is pursued for its own sake.
Misery translates athliotēs (ἀθλιότης). Misery is the opposite of Fulfillment, but like its opposite it should be understood as a description more of a person's objective state and less of their subjective emotions. The miserable person has not activated their Capacities, does not guide their Doings and Feelings by Thinking or a Commitment to the Good, tends toward Corruption and Decadence, and therefore lacks the inner harmony that is characteristic of the person who takes life Seriously.
Moderation translates sōphrosunē (σωφροσύνη). Although Aristotle never said to pursue "moderation in everything", Moderation is still the best way to render the multifaceted Greek word sōphrosunē. This Thriving of Character implies an ability to temper your Feelings, to keep your head in difficult situations, to avoid excess, and to honor the Delphic maxim "Nothing To Excess"; its opposite is Decadence. [Traditionally rendered as Temperance.]
Nature translates phusis (φύσις). A living thing's Nature is the full range of Capacities and Activities that it grows into (Greek phuein) through its years of development and, for humans, Upbringing and maturation.
Need translates epithumia (ἐπιθυμία). Of the three kinds of Reaching, Need is the most basic. Even plants have needs for sunlight, water, air, and nutrients in the earth, which enable them to live, grow, and reproduce. Although animals and humans experience more advanced levels of Awareness and thus have Wants and (for humans) Resolutions to action, they too have inescapable Needs that are Inherent in the processes of Life. When a felt Need is extreme or unnatural, I translate the word epithumia as Obsession. [Traditionally rendered as Appetite.]
Obsession translates boulēsis (βούλησις) when a Resolution is extreme or unnatural.
Practice translates chrēsis (χρῆσις). This is the use, exercise, or application of a Capacity or Trait in a person's Activity or Doing.
Reaching translates orexis (ὄρεξις). All living organisms reach out into the world to achieve Completions such as metabolism, growth, and reproduction. For Aristotle, there are three kinds of Reaching: Needs (evident even in plants), Wants (which emerge with Awareness and locomotion in animals), and Resolution (which results from Thinking, Deliberation, and Commitment in humans). [Traditionally rendered as Desire.]
Repulsively Wrong translates aischros (αἰσχρός). This term is the exact opposite of Beautifully Right and captures several senses, describing Doings and Feelings that are wrong, ugly, or ignoble. [Traditionally rendered as Shameful.]
Resolution translates boulēsis (βούλησις). Beyond the more basic Reachings of Needs and Wants, humans can resolve to take action based on their Deliberations about the future. The close connection between Deliberation and Resolution can be seen in their Greek roots: bouleusis or taking counsel leads to boulēsis or forming a resolution. Because Deliberation is an action-oriented form of Inquiry, Resolution is bound up with Thinking and conceptual Awareness; because the Commitment that produces a Resolution is part and parcel of practical Doing, Resolution is bound up with Character and acquired Traits. When a Resolution is extreme or unnatural, I translate the word boulēsis as Obsession. [Traditionally rendered as Wish.]
Sagacity translates sophia (σοφία). Sagacity combines a deep Understanding of sources and causes of things (especially the phenomena of Life and the Nature of the Good) with a deep Commitment to seeking Truth and living an examined life. Its opposites are Ignorance (which lacks that Understanding) and Deception (which lacks that Commitment). Sagacity differs from Wisdom in that Wisdom is focused on Good Deliberation that leads to Beautifully Right Doing and Feeling, whereas Sagacity is focused on Correct Inquiry that leads to Understanding and Insight purely for the sake of knowing. [Traditionally rendered as Theoretical Wisdom.]
Self-Indulgence translates akrasia (ἀκρασία). The self-indulgent or unrestrained person has an incomplete Understanding of human Fulfillment and the Beautifully Right Way of Life, but even that limited Understanding is frequently overruled by Indulgences to engage in Bad or Repulsively Wrong Doings and Feelings, at least in some domains of life. Although this kind of person has not descended into Corruption or Decadence, they don't have a consistent practice of Good or Correct Doing and Feeling, and thus don't experience inner harmony. Self-Indulgence is better than Decadence or some other form of Corruption, but suffers by contrast with Self-Restraint and especially with the Complete Thriving of the Serious person. [Traditionally rendered as Incontinence.]
Self-Restraint translates enkrateia (ἐγκράτεια). The self-restrained person has a fairly complete Understanding of human Fulfillment and the Beautifully Right Way of Life, and uses that understanding to override any momentary Indulgences to engage in Bad or Repulsively Wrong Doing. This kind of person engages in Correct Doing (in contrast to the Self-Indulgent person) but doesn't have consistently Good or Correct Feelings as does the Serious person of Complete Thriving, and thus doesn't always experience inner harmony. [Traditionally rendered as Continence.]
Serious translates spoudaios (σπουδαῖος). The completely Thriving person who takes life seriously has a thorough Understanding of human Fulfillment and the Beautifully Right Way of Life, and also has a settled Commitment to consistently apply that understanding in their Doings and Feelings. As a result, this kind of highly worthy person reliably experiences inner harmony and even represents a Standard for Wisdom and the Good. [Traditionally rendered as Good.]
Social translates politikē (πολιτική). Although it is characteristic of humans to live in a town or city (in Greek, a polis), Aristotle identified a wide variety of social animals and was especially impressed with social insects like ants and honeybees. All such creatures live in societies that have a common Completion on which they collaborate in different ways. For other animals this goal is mere Life, but for humans it is living well or Fulfillment, which involves highly sophisticated forms of social interaction that give rise to both political Deliberation and philosophical Inquiry. [Traditionally rendered as Political.]
Standard translates horos (ὅρος). The Standard of what is Good, Enjoyable, Valuable, etc., is not a strict rule as in modern ethical theories (e.g., "the greatest good for the greatest number" in utilitarianism) but the person who has achieved Complete Thriving and Wisdom in their Doing and Thinking. [Traditionally rendered as Rule.]
Target translates skopos (σκοπός). Aristotle often uses analogies from archery to describe central aspects of human experienc (e.g., Thrivings of Character help us avoid "missing the mark"). He also counsels us to aim at the Completion or Task of the human Way of Life as the specific Target of all our Doings and Commitments.
Task translates ergon (ἔργον). In his biological inquiries, Aristotle thought it was important to identify the contributions of particular parts of the body to the organism's overall Way of Life: the eyes for seeing, the feet for moving, the hands for grasping, etc. By extension, every living thing has a Task that consists of its characteristic Activities; for human beings, this is activity in accordance with Thinking and ethical Thriving. [Traditionally rendered as Function.]
Thinking translates logos (λόγος). Human life is saturated with language and the Thinking that lies behind language. These phenomena, two sides of the same coin, are the core meanings of the multifaceted Greek word logos. Thinking in the widest sense is the distinctive mode of Awareness for human beings; specific applications and developments of Thinking include Inquiry, Deliberation, Understanding, Insight, Wisdom, and Sagacity. [Traditionally rendered as Reason.]
Thriving translates aretē (ἀρετή). Thriving has biological roots in Life and Social roots in the human Way of Life. Building on the Homeric verb ἀρετάω (to prosper, to fare well), I turn the infinitive of the English verb "to thrive" into a noun, so that we can speak of, say, generosity as a Thriving of Character. Every Thriving is a Trait that finds the Balance-Point between falling short or going too far in a specific domain of life: courage between cowardice and rashness, generosity between stinginess and profligacy, and so on. [Traditionally rendered as Virtue.]
Trait translates hexis (ἕξις). A Trait builds upon one or more human Capacities to establish a stable and well-developed pattern of Activity. All Thrivings of Character and Thinking are Traits, but not all Traits are Thrivings — for example, both Understanding and Insight are Traits, as are all of the various Crafts that human beings have developed. All of these Traits are acquired and improved through instruction, correction, use, and reflection. [Traditionally rendered as Habit.]
Truth translates alētheia (ἀλήθεια). Truth is the Target of all Thinking. To grasp truth (aletheia) is to lack (a-) forgetting (lethe) and thus to have steadfast Understanding and Awareness of the world or some aspect thereof. The only way do this is to engage in the Activity of applying your Understanding of things, both in intellectual Inquiry and in practical Doing.
Understanding translates epistēmē (ἐπιστήμη). To know something in the deepest sense is to understand how to explain why it is the way it is. This is a tall order, for a thing's Identity includes its Nature, its Capacities, its Way of Being (and for living things its Way of Life), and the multifarious factors responsible for these phenomena. Once acquired, this kind of Understanding becomes firmly rooted in your mind as a Trait of grasping Truth and thus establishes a foundation for Wisdom and Sagacity. [Traditionally rendered as Knowledge.]
Upbringing translates ethismos (ἐθισμός). Upbringing is the process of learning, as a child and adolescent, the social customs that provide a foundation for fully developing the Traits of Character and Thinking as an adult. [Traditionally rendered as Habituation.]
Valuable translates haireta (αἱρετά). What's Valuable are the Activities that are worth pursuing in life (the term is nearly synonymous with the Good). A life that is full of such Activities is Serious and eminently worth living. [Traditionally rendered as Choiceworthy.]
Want translates thumos (θυμός). Beyond the more basic Reaching of Need that even plants have, animals also have Wants, which arise because animals have Capacities both for perceptual Awareness and for movement from place to place. Thus animals can pursue things they perceive as Good or beneficial and avoid things they perceive as Bad or harmful. When a Want is extreme or unnatural, I translate the word thumos as Indulgence. [Traditionally rendered as Spirit.]
Way of Being translates eidos (εἶδος). A thing's Way of Being is its underlying pattern of existence; for humans and other animals this is the organism's Way of Life. [Traditionally rendered as Form.]
Way of Life translates bios (βίος). An animal's Way of Life consists of its characteristic methods of finding food, reproducing, raising its young, acting within its environment, interacting with other members of its species, and the like. In particular, there is a continuum from solitary to highly Social creatures, with human beings at the latter end of the spectrum.
Wholeness translates autarkeia (αὐτάρκεια). When your life has Wholeness, it is self-contained and needs nothing else of significance to be considered Valuable and Complete. [Traditionally rendered as Self-Sufficiency.]
Wisdom translates phronēsis (φρόνησις). As with every other Thriving, Wisdom is a Balance-Point, in this case between Foolishness and Craftiness: the wise person combines good judgment with good character, whereas the foolish person lacks good judgment and the crafty person lacks good character. Wisdom plays a special role in unifying your Character, because it is a form of "minding" and Deliberation that helps you discover every other Balance-Point; thus Wisdom is a master Thriving in the realm of Doing and Feeling. [Traditionally rendered as Practical Wisdom.]