History of Animals
Aristotle
tr. d'A.W. Thompson

"Of animals, some resemble one another in all their parts, while others have parts wherein they differ. Sometimes the parts are identical in form.... In other cases the parts are identical, save only for a difference in the way of excess and defect.... Among them, most of the parts as a rule exhibit differences through contrareities of properties, such as colour and shape, in that some are more and some in a less degree the subject of the same property; and also in the way of multitude or fewness, magnitude or smallness, in short in the way of excess and defect." (486a14-486b8)

"Animals differ from one another in their modes of subsistence [βίοι], in their actions [πράξεις], in their habits [ἤθη], and in their parts [μόρια]." (487a11-12)

"Furthermore, the following differences are manifest in their modes of living [βίοι] and in their actions [πράξεις]. Some are gregarious [ἀγελαῖα], some are solitary [μοναδικά], whether they be furnished with feet or wings or be fitted for a life in the water; and some partake of both characters. And of the gregarious, some are social [πολιτικά], others independent [σποραδικά]. Gregarious creatures are, among birds, such as pigeons, the crane, and the swan (no bird furnished with crooked talons is gregarious). Of creatures that live in water many kinds of fishes are gregarious, such as the so-called migrants, the tunny, the pelamys, and the bonito. Man partakes of both characters. Social creatures are such as have some one common object [κοινόν ἔργον] in view; and this property is not common to all creatures that are gregarious. Such social creatures are man, the bee, the wasp, the ant, and the crane. Again, of these social creatures some submit to a ruler [ὑφ᾽ ἡγεμόνα], others are subject to no rule [ἄναρχα]: as, for instance, the crane and several sorts of bee submit to a ruler, whereas ants and numerous other creatures are subject to no rule." (487b33-488a13)

"Animals also differ from one another in regard to character [ἦθος] in the following respects. Some are good-tempered, sluggish, and not prone to ferocity, as the ox; others are quick-tempered, ferocious, and unteachable, as the wild boar; some are intelligent and timid, as the stag and the hare; others are mean and treacherous, as the snake; others are free and courageous and high-bred, as the lion; others are thorough-bred and wild and treacherous, as the wolf. (An animal is high-bred if it comes from a good stock, and an animal is thorough-bred if it does not deflect from its natural characteristics.) Further, some are crafty and mischievous, as the fox; some are spirited and affectionate and fawning, as the dog; others are easy-tempered and easily domesticated, as the elephant; others are cautious and watchful, as the goose; others are jealous and conceited, as the peacock. But of all animals man alone is capable of deliberation [βουλευτικόν]. Many animals have memory, and are capable of instruction; but no other creature except man can recall the past at will." (488b12-26)

"We have now discussed the physical characteristics of animals and their modes of generation. Their habits and their modes of living vary according to their character and their food. In the great majority of animals there are traces of psychical qualities which are more markedly differentiated in the case of human beings. For just as we pointed out resemblances in the physical organs, so in a number of animals we observe gentleness or fierceness, mildness or cross temper, courage or timidity, fear or confidence, high spirit or low cunning, and, with regard to intelligence, something equivalent to sagacity [σύνεσις]. Some of these qualities in man, as compared with the corresponding qualities in animals, differ only quantitatively; that is to say, a man has more of this quality, and an animal has more of some other; other qualities in man are represented by analogous qualities: for instance, just as in man we find knowledge [τέχνη], wisdom [σοφία], and sagacity [σύνεσις], so in certain animals there exists some other natural capacity akin to these. The truth of this statement will be the more clearly apprehended if we have regard to the phenomena of childhood; for in children may be observed traces and seeds of what will one day be settled habits [ἕξεις], though psychologically a child hardly differs for the time being from an animal; so that one is justified in saying that, as regards man and animals, certain psychical qualities are identical with one another, whilst others resemble, and others are analogous to, each other." (588a16-588b3)

"In regard to sensibility [αἴσθησις], some animals give no indication whatsoever of it, whilst others indicate it but indistinctly. Further, the substance of some of these intermediate creatures is fleshlike, as is the case with the so-called ascidians and the sea-anemones; but the sponge is in every respect like a vegetable. And so throughout the entire animal scale there is graduating differentiation in amount of vitality and in capacity for motion. A similar statement holds good with regard to habits of life [τοῦ βίου πράξεις]. Thus of plants that spring from seed the one function [ἔργον] seems to be the reproduction of their own particular species, and the sphere of action with certain animals is similarly limited. Such activities, then, are common to all alike. If sensibility be superadded, then their lives will differ from one another in respect to sexual intercourse through the varying amounts of pleasure derived therefrom, and also in regard to modes of parturition and ways of rearing their young. Some animals, like plants, simply procreate their own species at definite seasons; other animals busy themselves also in procuring food for their young, and after they are reared quit them and have no further dealings with them; other animals are more intelligent and endowed with memory, and they live with their offspring for a longer period and on a more social footing [πολιτικώτερον]. The life of animals, then, maybe divided into two parts, procreation and feeding; for on these two acts all their interests and life concentrate. Their food varies chiefly according to the matter of which they are severally constituted; for the source of their growth in all cases will be this substance. And whatsoever is in conformity with nature is pleasant, and all animals pursue pleasure in keeping with their nature." (588b17-589a9) [PSA: this passage is relevant to Aristotle's discussions of σωφροσύνη in the ethical treatises, where he focuses on the impulses that humans have in common with the other animals]

"Of the animals that are comparatively obscure and short-lived the characters [ἤθη] are not so obvious to our perception as are those of animals that are longer-lived. These latter animals appear to have a natural capacity [δύναμις] corresponding to each of the passions of the soul: to good sense or simplicity, courage or timidity, to good temper or to bad, and to other similar dispositions [ἕξεις]. Some also are capable of giving or receiving instruction - of receiving it from one another or from man: those that have the faculty of hearing - not merely of hearing sounds but of distinguishing the differences of signs." (608a11-21)

"In all cases, excepting those of the bear and the leopard, the female is less spirited [ἀθυμότερα] than the male; in regard to the two exceptional cases, the superiority in courage rests with the female. With all other animals the female is softer in disposition, is more mischievous, less simple, more impulsive, and more attentive to the nurture of the young; the male, on the other hand, is more spirited, more savage, more simple, and less cunning. The traces of these characteristics are more or less visible everywhere, but they are especially visible where character [ἦθος] is the more developed, and most of all in man. The fact is, the nature of man is the most rounded and complete [ἀποτετελεσμένην], and consequently in man the qualities above referred to are found most clearly. Hence woman is more compassionate than man, more easily moved to tears, at the same time is more jealous, more querulous, more apt to scold and to strike. She is, furthermore, more prone to despondency and less hopeful than the man, more void of shame, more false of speech, more deceptive, and of more retentive memory. She is also more wakeful, more shrinking, more difficult to rouse to action, and requires a smaller quantity of nutriment. As was previously stated, the male is more courageous than the female, and more sympathetic in the way of standing by to help." (608a33-608b16)

"The characters of animals, as has been observed, differ in respect to timidity, to gentleness, to courage, to tameness, to intelligence [νοῦς], and to stupidity [ἄνοια]." (610b20-22)

"In a general way in the lives of animals many resemblances to human life may be observed." (612b18-19)

"Of all wild animals the most easily tamed and the gentlest is the elephant. It can be taught a number of things, and it understands them; as, for instance, it can be taught to kneel in the presence of the king. It is very sensitive [εὐαίσθητον], and is possessed of an intelligence [σύνεσις] superior to that of other animals." (630b18-21)

"Among the sea-fishes many stories are told about the dolphin, indicative of his gentle and kindly nature...." (631a8-9)

"Just as with all animals a change of action [πράξεις] follows a change of circumstance, so also a change of character [ἤθη] follows a change of action...." (631b5-7)

"Now in the case of any other part, it is plain that it is healthy if it performs its function [ἔργον] satisfactorily and gives no pain and is not exhausted after functioning: e.g. an eye is healthy when it does not produce pus and can see and after seeing is not disturbed [ταράττηται] and not incapable of seeing again." (633b18-22)

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