Version: 1.1
Last Updated: 2025-03-24
(For background information about this translation, see the relevant blog post.)
We praise what's beautiful and criticize what's worthless. The thrivings of character are the most prominent of the beautiful things; the failings of character are the most prominent of the worthless things. Also praised are what's responsible for the thrivings, what comes along with them, what brings them into being, and what results from them; also criticized are the opposites of these.
If, following Plato, we hold that personhood has three aspects, then wisdom is a thriving of thinking, mildness and courage are thrivings of wanting, moderation and self-restraint are thrivings of needing, and justice, free-heartedness, and great-heartedness are thrivings of the whole person. Foolishness is a failing of thinking, belligerence and cowardice are failings of wanting, dissipation and self-indulgence are failings of needing, and injustice, servility, and small-heartedness are failings of the whole person.
Wisdom is a thriving of thinking that procures what conduces to fulfillment. Mildness is a thriving of wanting that makes one disinclined to anger. Courage is a thriving of wanting that makes one resistant to the fear of death. Moderation is a thriving of needing that prevents one from grabbing after the enjoyment of worthless pleasures. Self-restraint is a thriving of needing that makes one mindfully resist the impulsive craving for worthless pleasures. Justice is a thriving of the whole person that distributes things according to worth. Free-heartedness is a thriving of the whole person that spends freely on what's beautiful. Great-heartedness is a thriving of the whole person that gives one the power to handle good fortune and bad fortune as well as honor and dishonor.
Foolishness is a failing of thinking that is responsible for bad living. Belligerence is a failing of wanting that makes one easily stirred to anger. Cowardice is a failing of wanting that induces fear, especially the fear of death. Dissipation is a failing of needing that causes one to pursue worthless pleasures. Self-indulgence is a failing of needing that drags one unthinkingly to the enjoyment of worthless pleasures. Injustice is a failing of the whole person that makes one greedy for things beyond one's worth. Servility is a failing of the whole person that causes one to grab after gain from any and every source. Small-heartedness is a failing of the whole person that makes one unable to handle good fortune and bad fortune as well as honor and dishonor.
To wisdom belong deliberation; discernment of what is good and bad as well as everything in life that is to be preferred and avoided; beautiful use of all good things; keeping good company; taking advantage of the opportune moment; the astute use of words and deeds; and experience regarding everything useful. Memory, experience, and astuteness all arise from wisdom or accompany it. Alternatively some of these might be contributing causes of wisdom, such as memory and experience, while others are aspects of wisdom, such as astuteness and successful deliberation.
To mildness belong being able to moderately handle assault and contempt; not rushing quickly to retaliation; not being easily spurred to anger; not being bitter or contentious in one's character; and maintaining one's equilibrium and steadfastness.
To courage belong not being overtaken by fears of death; being bold in fearful situations; being brave in the face of danger; preferring to die beautifully over saving oneself in an ugly way; and shouldering responsibility for victory. Also belonging to courage are working hard, demonstrating endurance, and taking things like a man. Qualities that come along with courage are bravery, high spirits, confidence, audacity, a love of toil, and endurance.
To moderation belong not being fascinated by the enjoyment of bodily pleasures; not grabbing after the enjoyment of ugly pleasures; caring about a justly deserved security; and living a well-ordered way of life in matters large and small. Qualities that come along with moderation are self-discipline, decorum, a sense of shame, and thoughtfulness.
To self-restraint belongs the ability to mindfully resist the impulsive craving for worthless pleasures, as well as endurance and steadfastness in the face of poverty and pain.
To justice belong distributing things according to worth; preserving the customs and laws of one's country, written and unwritten; being truthful in matters of significance; and honoring one's agreements. Doing justice to the high gods comes first, followed by the lesser deities, one's country, one's parents, and one's ancestors. Piety is either part of justice or comes along with it. Purity, truthfulness, faith, and hatred of evil also follow from justice.
To free-heartedness belong giving lavishly with regard to what's praiseworthy; spending in abundance on necessities; being helpful when disagreements arise; and not accepting things from those one shouldn't. Free-hearted people also are elegant in their clothing and household; surround themselves with superfluous, beautiful, delightful things that bring pleasure without attention to making a profit; and like to keep animals that are distinctive and wonderful. Qualities that follow from free-heartedness are having an adaptable and easy-going character, being kind and compassionate, and loving friends, strangers, and what's beautiful.
To great-heartedness belong handling good fortune and bad fortune as well as honor and dishonor; being unimpressed by luxury, flattery, power, or winning in contested matters; and having a certain depth and grandeur in one's person. Great-hearted people don't make too much of life and aren't overly fond of living; in their character they are straightforward and noble; and when wronged they are able to refrain from being punitive. A dedication to truth and a lack of pretense also follow from great-heartedness.
To foolishness belong being a bad judge of things; deliberating badly; keeping bad company; using badly the goods at hand; and having false opinions about what's good and beautiful in life. Qualities that come along with foolishness are inexperience, ignorance, self-indulgence, awkwardness, and a poor memory.
There are three forms of belligerence: being hot-tempered, bitter, or sullen. Belligerent people can't handle minor insults and attacks; they are vengeful, punitive, and easily angered by any chance word or deed. Qualities that follow on belligerence are irritability, a changeable character, harsh language, and being pained by small things — plus experiencing all these things quickly and on trifling occasions.
To cowardice belong being easily moved to chance fears, especially of death and bodily injury, and assuming that every manner of self-preservation is better than coming to a beautiful end. Qualities that follow on cowardice are weakness, unmanliness, laziness, and overfondness for life. Underlying it all is a kind of cautious and timid character.
To dissipation belong pursuing the enjoyment of harmful, ugly pleasures; assuming that those who subsist in such pleasures are especially fulfilled; being fond of laughing, jeering, and joking; and being reckless in word and deed. Qualities that follow on dissipation are disorder, shamelessness, lack of discipline, a taste for luxury and loose living, carelessness, contemptuousness, and an overly relaxed approach to life.
To self-indulgence belong choosing the enjoyment of pleasures that reason forbids; partaking of such pleasures even though believing that it is better not to; and for the sake of pleasure desisting from doing things that are beautiful and beneficial even though thinking that one ought to do them. Qualities that follow on self-indulgence are weakness, being full of regrets, and in general the qualities that follow on dissipation.
There are three forms of injustice: impiety, greed, and arrogance. Impiety is trespassing against the high gods, the lesser deities, one's ancestors, one's parents, and one's country. Greed concerns agreements, specifically seeking a disparity beyond one's worth. Arrogance occurs when one procures pleasure for oneself while bringing reproach upon others; whence Evenus says of it "what gains nothing while harming another." To injustice belong violating the customs and laws of one's country; disobeying the laws and authorities; lying; perjuring; and violating agreements and promises. Qualities that follow on injustice are flattery, haughtiness, pretended sociability, a bad character, and cunning.
There are three forms of servility: shameful gain, cheapness, and stinginess. Shameful gain is seeking gain from any and every source and minding the gain more than the shame. Cheapness is refusing to dedicate anything extra to necessities. Stinginess is spending minimally and badly, thereby causing more harm than good by spoiling the opportune moment. To servility belong making out money to be better than everything else; believing no reproach can attach to something that makes a profit; and living a life that is menial and sordid — fit only for a slave and foreign to all free-heartedness and love of honor. Qualities that follow on servility are narrow-mindedness, sullenness, small-heartedness, misanthropy, and a lack of self-respect, proportion, and nobility.
To small-heartedness belongs an inability to handle honor and dishonor as well as good fortune and bad fortune. Instead, to small-heartedness belong bragging when honored; being overjoyed at minor instances of good fortune; being unable to bear the slightest dishonor; regarding the most trivial misfortune as a great failure; and weeping and wailing over everything. Furthermore, small-hearted people call the most insignificant slight an outrage and dishonor, even when done through ignorance or forgetfulness. Qualities that follow on small-heartedness are small-mindedness, self-pity, pessimism, and lack of self-respect.
In general, thriving of character puts a person in seriously excellent condition by applying changes that are well-ordered and in equilibrium, thus experiencing harmony among all aspects of personhood. This is why it seems that a person in seriously excellent condition is a model for a well-governed society. Furthermore, to thriving of character belong doing good works to those worthy of them; loving the good; and being neither vengeful nor punitive, but instead being gracious, kindly, and compassionate. Qualities that follow on thriving of character are kindness, humaneness, gratefulness, and optimism; and moreover all such qualities as love of friends, companions, strangers, humanity, and what's beautiful — all of which are laudable. What's related to the failings of character are the opposites of these.